The language of denial is complex and varied. English has many words that express a similar sentiment. The verbs ‘to deny’, ‘to decline’, ‘to reject’ and ‘to refuse’ have similar meanings but often distinct uses. You can deny an allegation, decline an invitation, refuse a chair, reject a lover, object to a statement and refute a claim. Read on to learn about these words of denial and their common collocations. Plus, we explore the confusing language used in the current Ford vs Kavanaugh case, the ambiguity of legal terms and how language can manipulate or mislead the listener.

 

Words to Express Denial

The language of denial can use a number of different words to express the sentiment of denial. There are numerous words that have a similar meaning. The problem is that many of the words that mean ‘deny’ or something similar in English can be translated as the same word in another language. This causes difficulty in distinguishing them from each other.

Here are some words with similar meanings that relate to denial. The stressed syllable is in bold:

to deny, to refuse, to object to, to refute, to reject, to decline

Notice that all these words take the stress on the last syllable. This is because they are verbs. If we stress the first syllable it can turn some of these words into nouns. For example, ‘refuse’ means rubbish/trash, ‘object’ means an item and ‘reject’ can mean a an item that is discarded or damaged.

All of these verbs in the list are words of denial in different forms. For example:

“I deny the accusation that I left the fridge door open” / “I deny I ever did that”

“I refused to accept her letter of resignation” / “I refused him the second helping of pudding”

“I object to your continued demands for bean salad”

“I have refuted your claims by means of a lie detector test” (to refute means to disprove)

“I reject your apology because I don’t believe you are sincere” / “I rejected her job application”

“I declined his invitation because I didn’t feel like going to the party” / “She declined to comment on the newspaper story”

 

Opposite meanings for clarification 

In order to more closely examine the meanings of these words of denial, we can take a closer look at their opposites:

The verb ‘to accept’ or ‘to approve’ can mean the opposite of these words: to refuse, to reject, to decline

The verb ‘to admit’ is the opposite of the word ‘to deny’. For example, to admit the truth is the opposite of to deny the truth

The verb ‘to refute’ is the opposite to the word ‘to prove’. If you refute something, you disprove it.

The verb ‘to object’ is the opposite of the word ‘to agree’. If you object to something, you disagree with it. People can ‘object’ to a position, e.g. a moral objection’.

Meanings of the verb ‘to deny’

The verb ‘to deny’ has two main meanings: to say something isn’t true and to refuse someone (access to) something.

So, we can ‘deny’ something to say it isn’t true. For example, if you are accused of committing a crime, you can deny it. The opposite of this is ‘to admit’ to the crime.

We can also deny someone something. For example, we can deny someone the opportunity of eating the cake (because perhaps we threw the cake away). We have denied them the pleasure of eating the cake. We have denied them the cake. Or simply, we have denied them cake.

‘I deny’ is not a statement on its own. You must deny something or someone.

Be aware that ‘denied’ can be a one-word answer to a request, albeit it an impolite one. For example, “Permission to speak?” “Denied”.

Meanings of the verb ‘to refuse’ 

If you refuse to do something, you firmly choose not to do it. When you refuse to do something, it is a strong position that will not easily be swayed. For example, “I refuse to take out the rubbish” means you will definitely not be taking the rubbish out.

You can also refuse something to turn it down, to not accept it. For example, “I refused the sandwich because I wasn’t hungry” or “I refused the chair because I prefer to stand”.

‘I refuse’ can be a statement on its own. The thing you are refusing can be implied. For example, “Could you pick up that trash?” “I refuse”.

Meanings of the verb ‘to reject’

The word ‘reject’ is very similar to the word ‘refuse’. If you reject a suggestion, you disagree with it or choose not to go along with it. For example “He rejected their apology”, “She rejected her lawyer’s advice”, “They rejected the idea that the earth was flat”, “I rejected his proposal that I should sing”.

The word ‘reject’ can also carry negative connotations of inferiority. If you ‘reject’ something the implication is that you thought it wasn’t good enough. For example, if you reject the pie, it could be because the pie looked unpleasant. You prefer a different pie.

If a shop assistant tells you that “your card has been rejected” when trying to pay for something, this implies there is something wrong with your credit card. It sounds better to have your card ‘declined’, which is the word more commonly used.

‘To reject’ is quite a harsh word. If someone is rejected as a job applicant or when applying for a mortgage or when asking someone out on a date, it can feel hurtful. This is linked to the noun ‘reject’ (stress on the first syllable), which means an item that is rejected because it isn’t good enough.

If an item is ‘a reject’, it is discarded or marked as inferior. You will often find this in the retail industry, for example, if an item of stock is damaged (sometimes called a ‘second’) it is a reject and might be sold at a discount in the sales or possibly be thrown away.

The noun ‘reject’ can also apply to a person who is rejected, an outcast, but to use the word ‘reject’ in this way sounds very impolite.

Another similar word to ‘reject’ in the language of denial is ‘to rebuff’. When you rebuff someone, you reject them or criticise them sharply.

‘I reject’ cannot be a statement on its own. You must reject something or someone.

 

Meanings of the verb ‘to decline’

The verb ‘to decline’ is similar to the word ‘to reject’ when talking about an idea or proposal. However, it feels much gentler. If we decline an invitation, it has a softer and less negative connotation than if we ‘reject’ the invitation. The verb ‘to decline’ is similar to the verb ‘to refuse’. To decline something generally means to give a polite refusal.

‘I decline’ isn’t a statement alone – you must decline something.

The verb ‘to decline’ can also be used as an instransitive verb, which means that it doesn’t have an object. For example, if something is ‘declining’ it means it is getting worse. E.g. “basic human rights are declining in this country”. We can also say something is “going into decline” to mean it is worsening.

Decline is also used as a noun with the stress on the first syllable. A ‘decline’ can be a downward slope, the opposite of an incline. There can also be ‘a decline‘ in something with the stress on the last syllable, for example “the decline in standards”, “the decline of morals”, “the decline of the economy”.

How to use the phrase ‘to object to’

If you object to something, you disagree with it. Notice that we need to use the preposition ‘to’ after the word ‘object’, before stating the noun – the thing we are objecting to.

You can’t say: “I object the ageism in this film“. You have to say: “I object to the ageism in this film”.

The other words associated with the language of denial do not always need a trailing ‘to’, depending on the sentence, and the words ‘deny’ and ‘reject” never need a trailing ‘to’. You can deny something and reject something, but you must object to something.

‘I object’ can stand alone, when you want to object to something immediately. For example, “I would like to use your chair as firewood.” “I object!”

Meanings of the verb ‘to refute’ 

If you refute something, you disprove it. The word refute is a strong word, which means you prove a statement or a person to be wrong. It means more than ‘to deny’ – a refutation shows by argument that an accusation, theory, statement or opinion is incorrect. This word ‘refute’ is used in academia when a researcher disproves a theory.

You cannot say ‘I refute’ as a stand-alone statement – you must refute something.

Another similar word is ‘rebut’, which means to reject a statement – a rebuttal. The verb ‘to rebut’ is not as strong as ‘to refute’. A rebuttal can be an reasoned argument against an accusation, while a refutation is actually to prove the accusation wrong.

In modern usage, the word ‘refute’ has started to be used to mean simply ‘deny’ and the words are sometimes used to mean the same thing. Many linguistics experts don’t like this and argue the word ‘refute’ always means ‘to disprove’ and not ‘to deny’.

Traditionalists reject the idea that the words ‘refute’ and ‘deny’ are interchangeable – but can they refute it? The meaning of language changes over time and dictionaries are updated with new definitions. Perhaps ‘refute’ will have its definition expanded officially.

Examples of Denial Phrases

We can imply many subtle meanings with the language of denial. The different words related to denial also have their common collocations.

Beginner EFL students have no need to learn all these different ways of using the language of denial, as learning the word ‘deny’ gives enough vocabulary to cover lots of usages and convey your meaning to the listener. But if you are an advanced student, you can inject more subtlety into your English language by learning some variations. Here are some ways of using the words deny, refuse, refute, reject, decline and object:

We can deny an allegation – a denial of an allegation

We can refuse an offer – a refusal of an offer

We can refute a theory – a refutation of a theory

We can reject a suggestion  – a rejection of a suggestion

We can rebuff an advance – a rebuffal of an advance (a common collocation when talking about turning down a romantic approach)

We can object to a proposal – an objection to a proposal (notice the verb ‘to object’ needs ‘to’ afterwards)

We can decline an invitation *

* There is no commonly used noun form of ‘decline’ to mean reject. The word declination is obsolete. You should use one of the other noun options in this list instead. Alternatively, we can use the gerund form ‘declining’. For example, “By declining the invitation to dinner, he had created more time for playing cards” can also be re-written “His declining of the invitation to dinner had created more time for playing cards”. This use of the gerund in the second sentence is quite awkward though, so it would be better to choose another word.

Denial, lying and body language

When denying an allegation, it isn’t only the language we use that affects how people perceive our denial. Our body language also matters, along with our general demeanor.

Studies have also shown that people can lie more easily when talking in a foreign language. This is especially interesting when discussing phrases related to denial in an EFL class!

Other tell tale signs of lying in words of denial include the use of more formal language without the contractions we normally use in speech. For example, a person who is lying is more likely to say “I have not” instead of “I haven’t” and “I did not” instead of “I didn’t”.

Another common practice of a liar is to use language that distances them from someone or something related to the issue. For example, they might say “that woman”, “that city” or “that incident” instead of naming the person, the place or the specific act in question.

Other signs of lying include repeating the question in full, as if stalling for time to think.

‘It’s not a lie if you believe it’

The language of a liar in denial can sometimes be distinguished by subtle signs, but if a person believes their own testimony, this creates difficulties.

If someone genuinely believes they are telling the truth, their body language and verbal assertions will look like those of a truthful person.

Of course, there is no difference in the language we use to deny our actions if we genuinely believe we are telling the truth. This is the case whether we are mistaken or have merely forgotten because it happened a long time ago.

Indeed, if a person denies an allegation yet is still guilty, they may have simply forgotten the incident. People often forget events that were not important to them at the time it occurred.

We would not remember something that was inconsequential to us, even if the event was life-changing to someone else. We all experience events subjectively. So one person’s lie can be another person’s truth.

One person’s chance remark can be remembered by another person forever, and one person’s casual game can be another person’s life-defining trauma.

Ford vs Kavanaugh and the language of denial 

The language of denial is be used to deny an allegation. Words can also be used to imply innocence, to alter the appearance of an allegation or to downplay its seriousness. The specific language chosen can manipulate the listener, even unintentionally – language is powerful in this way.

For example, Brett Kanvanaugh is facing accusations of sexual assault from Doctor Christine Blasey Ford, which he has denied. The language used around the case is interesting and for many people, rather concerning.

The language of denial can be very subtle. It can include words that imply denial without overtly denying an allegation. This type of language can also be used to subtly manipulate the listener, even if unintentionally.

How language can be used to change listener perceptions  

In the case of Kavanaugh, the words the Senate Judiciary Committee used to describe the allegations against him use the word ‘encounter’ not the word ‘sexual assault’ or the word ‘rape’. The word ‘encounter’ is a light word that means a brief meeting of two people. No negative connotation is implied.

Using the word ‘encounter’ here, in the context of this assault case, works to downplay the seriousness of the allegations against Kavanaugh.

Kavanaugh’s own language of denial also used the word ‘encounter’. He said in his pre-hearing comments that he denied having “any sexual or physical encounter of any kind with Dr. Ford.” (1.)

The word ‘encounter’ here is ambiguous and could feel almost inconsequential, as though discussing a brief and casual meeting by chance in a cafe. This contrasts heavily with the same situation Dr Ford describes in her own testimony, which involves being physically trapped and terrified in a potentially life-threatening situation.

The language of denial in this case involves the lack of words that pertain to the specific allegation. Instead, the language to discuss the allegations use a light, ambiguous word that seems to soften the mood and reduce the impact and gravity of the allegation.

This issue of unclear language usage in relation to sexual assault cases has been raised before. There is a concern that euphemistic and minimising language serves to reduce the visibility of sexual assault in our culture (2).

Awareness of this continued failure to use correct labels (and the potential risks of this failure for society as a whole) is rising thanks to the #MeToo movement, political activism and the writing of feminist thinkers.

Innocence, Guilt and the Language of Denial 

The language of denial is the same whether a defendant actually is innocent or when they only have a sincere belief in their innocence. Their own understanding of the event affects and, in effect, selects their choice of language.

A denial in this way does not necessarily mean innocence in reality, but innocence only in the defendant’s mind. This could be due to a refusal to accept the truth, a mistaken belief, arrogant self-justification, disbelief in the rights of their accuser, lack of understanding of their crime or a failed memory.

Of course, a defendant is always presumed innocent until proven guilty. That is, unless a defendant can be proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt, they are ‘innocent’ in law. This is an interesting use of language that conflicts with our common usage. It is an example of language altering the perceptions of the audience.

This is because we know that when a person is declared ‘not guilty’ in a legal proceeding, it doesn’t mean they didn’t commit the crime. It simply means the court could not prove their guilt. If matters are evenly balanced, the accused must be acquitted – they must be declared not guilty. In other words, they are innocent.

Guilty, Not Guilty, Innocent and the Language of Law

The English language used by the courts of law demand that someone is either ‘guilty’ or ‘not guilty’. If the jury finds the accused ‘not guilty’, their innocence is presumed in the eyes of the law.

This unique legal usage can alter the perceptions of the listener, as we are used to these words meaning something more concrete in everyday usage.

Whatever the case, the language of denial can be subtle and, on face value, seemingly unimportant. Yet the language we use can have a huge impact on the emotional response and assumptions of those listening.

Language has the power to engage an audience, increase the weight of an idea or decrease its impact.

Whether we are using the language of denial in our everyday lives or mounting a defence in a court of law, our words can make all the difference.

 

Share your thoughts on the language of denial 

Do you feel there is a strong difference between the words ‘deny’, ‘refuse’, ‘reject’ and ‘decline’?

How would you define these words? How would you explain the differences in their meanings?

Do you think the language used to describe an event can have a big impact on our perceptions of that event? How?

Do you feel that language usage has had an impact on the Kavanaugh case? In what way?

Teachers, how would you explore the language of denial and the words’ subtle differences in an EFL class?

We’d love to hear your thoughts in the comments!

 

References

1. Timsit, A. (2018) “Kavanaugh is accused of serious evils. Let’s use the right words to describe them” in Quartz, 27th September 2018. Accessed on 30th Sep 2018 at: https://qz.com/1404529/brett-kavanaugh-and-the-minimizing-language-we-use-to-describe-sexual-assault/
2. Emmott, C. (2013) “‘Inappropriate Behaviour’ – Euphemistic Language Is Part of Rape Culture”, Huffington Post, 4th March 2013. Accessed on 30th Sep 2018 at: https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/chloe-emmott/rape-culture-uk-media_b_2789756.html